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It is difficult to talk about the history of robotics without talking about every step (even baby steps) where robotics have advanced. This article is only a snapshot of a much bigger overall picture. It focuses on the greatest leaps forward in each of the following seven categories: Educational and Scientific Research, Industrial/Manufacturing, Military and Law Enforcement, Entertainment, Medical, Toys, and Household Help. Every book or article on robots contains bits and pieces of this picture, but they differ greatly depending on which area the authors choose to focus their attention. Whether it is the mechanical side, the business side, or the intelligence side. If after reading this article, you are interested in learning more, I sincerely suggest picking up any of the books or articles in the bibliography. There is also a list of interesting websites that are definitely worth checking out because they are educational and entertaining.
Pre-Robot History
The earliest machine known to man was the water clock. Like its name suggests, it kept time throughout the day using water either flowing in or out at a consistent rate. No one is sure where or when the clocks originated, but they have been found in Egyptian Temples and among the ruins of the Greeks and Romans (en.wikipedia.com.) This of course led to the innovation of using springs and dials to create more accurate clocks. The more artistic societies used those mechanics to create cuckoo clocks that had animatronic animals or human figures that would carry out all kinds of actions through the mechanics of the clock. This led to the eventual development of full-on automaton.
Some of the most celebrated of these early robots seemed very life-like to the audiences of the time. One of the earliest designs for an automaton was recently discovered in some of the notes and human body studies of Leonardo De Vinci. (Brooks) It doesn’t appear that he ever built the Knight automaton he designed, but modern art and mechanical researchers have built completely functional automatons based on his designs that are capable of sitting and standing. Jacques de Vaucanson created an automaton duck that could walk, quack, eat, and even simulate the digestion of its food. Henri Maillardet, a Swiss born mechanic and watch maker, created the Scribe automaton which was capable of writing poems and drawing pictures. The Scribe, rebuilt by the Franklin Institute after it was destroyed in a fire, breathes between sentences, turns the paper as it writes, and knocks off excess ink from its quill. All of these were made possible because of the advances in mechanical springs, dials, pulleys, and levers. The only other Maillardet automaton known to exist was given as a gift from King George the III to the Emperor of China. (en.wikipedia.com, Brooks, and Asimov)
The launch of the Apollo space missions made many of the technological advances we see all around us today possible. The computer, once a large room-size calculator with punch cards and vacuum tubes is now a portable wide screen laptop with internal programming and silicone because of this scientific and mechanical push. Those early advances were necessary for the evolution of the robotic field.
Remote controlled robots have existed since Nikola Tesla invented them in the 1890’s. That is the same Nikola Tesla who created Alternating Current (AC) electric power. His most admired “robot” was his remote controlled submarine. (Currie) But for the first autonomous and self regulating robots we need to look at Grey Walter’s tortoises or as he jokingly called them, taking a cue from biological naming schemes, “Machina speculatrix.” These were shoebox-sized, clear-domed robots on wheels. Using an early form of computer programming they were taught to search out light and stop the search if its batteries were low to find a recharging station. The robots’ animal-like behavior without knowledge of the outside world is something that would be emulated decades later.
Walter’s tortoises aren’t held in much regard compared to today’s robots because of a lack of what is called “artificial intelligence”. This term was first coined by Professor John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference in 1956. (Brooks) Artificial Intelligence, or AI as it is often called, allows the computer brain of a robot to process its surroundings and decide its next course of action. Today AI is part of our everyday lives from the video game bad guys we battle to the Microsoft word wizard paper clip program on your computer.
1) Educational Scientific Research
In 1969, the Stanford Research Institute’s “Shakey the Robot” was able to visualize basic objects in a room and navigate the room by moving objects to meet its goals. Shakey was about adult sized and contained sensors and cameras. It got its name because it shook as it moved due to its three-wheel design. Shakey, and other cart type robots that followed, used radio waves to link to computer mainframe in another room that served as the brain. This created a highly agile and moveable robot with a large high-powered thinking computer brain. If the brain was kept onboard you would have a very large, slow moving robot. Any changes to Shakey’s surroundings required recalculation for the robot’s next move. That meant if a person were to walk in front of the robot, it would have to rethink its next move for every step the person took. Shakey was still viewed as a breakthrough in artificial intelligence, despite not being able to adjust to these real-world movements. (Brooks)
On May 9, 1997 another breakthrough in AI occurred. Garry Kasparov, a grand master of chess, played and lost to IBM’s Deep Blue. This was ground breaking because up until this point many scientists in the field believed a computer could never defeat a human player, especially a world ranked master of the game. After this defeat, the critics said that this did not prove computers could be intelligent, merely that a computer, with brute force calculating, could figure out the necessary moves before a human could. (research.ibm.com Brooks)
Professor Rodney Brooks of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) was the first to veer away from the cart style robots. He looked at Walter’s tortoises and decided that a robot could have cognitive thinking abilities and therefore be artificially intelligent without being aware of its entire surroundings or calculating exactly what its next move would be. He did this by bucking the trend and removing the central brain concept. He and his team created the six legged “Genghis”. Its entire existence revolved around a “read and response” instinct like an insect. Specifically, Genghis senses the nearest human heat source and tracks it down. Through heat sensors and cameras it is able to recognize the heat source and choose whether to follow it or a closer target. Its walking program even allowed for missteps and corrective measures.
Robots have frequently been used to survey animal life on land and underwater. They have also been used for deep sea salvage. (Asimov p55) In the December 2004 issue of Wired James Cameron revealed that his entire motivation to make the movie Titanic was so he could dive and visit the sunken sea liner. The first views from inside the Titanic were obtained using his crew’s specially created cameras and man operated robot named “Snoop Dog”. Until then every shot of the interior of the ship had come from its sister ship the Olympic. Nobody had thought to take pictures of it in 1912 because no one expected it to sink on its maiden voyage.
A joint NASA and Carnegie Mellon University project serves as a test bed for robotic advancements while also exploring the dangerous inner regions of volcanoes. The first robot used was Dante I and its first mission ended when its support cable snapped and it fell into the volcano. In July of 1994, the eight legged Dante II climbed down the inner walls of Mt Spurr in Alaska. Dante II encountered several disasters from being hit by a boulder to falling on its ascent back out. The mission was considered a success because of all the data collected and the systems and sensors themselves worked according to plan.
Sojourner was the name given to the Mars rover that first made contact with the surface on July 5, 1997. This was possible because robots like Genghis proved to NASA that they did not need to send a huge expensive rover to mars for exploration. Brooks had argued that we could put a robot on Mars “cheaper, faster, and out of control [of humans]” that flew right in the face of the $12 billion baseline cost being discussed with Congress. Instead of one, we could send many. Instead of taking years to build one autonomous all knowing robot, we could spend months putting together insect like explorers capable of randomly going about their way. Because of this, the robots would not need to be completely guided by humans nor would they need to have 3D maps of Mars be a part of their programming. More importantly, the cost would be closer to only $22 million. That is not cheap to you or me, but in terms of space exploration it is a bargain, one that would allow NASA scientists to sacrifice a rover if it meant exploring a dangerous unknown region of Mars. After Sojourner’s primary guided mission was a success, it was set free to follow his programming to explore. In 2004 the rovers Spirit and Opportunity also got to explore freely. (Brooks p56-58, discover.com)
Cynthia Breazeal, basing her work on Professor Rodney Brooks’ Cog robot, created “Kismet” as a study in human social interaction. At first Kismet was only capable of eye and neck movements with very minimal sounds. Using cameras and sensors, Kismet was able to follow people’s eyes and take turns during conversations by picking up on human cues. Currently Kismet is capable of several facial movements and some speaking phrases. (Brooks p64-65)
The Stanford University racing team and their SUV robot, Stanley, won the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency’s (DARPA) 2005 Grand Challenge and earned a 2 million dollar grant for their efforts. Stanley used its state-of-the-art technology, including laser range finders, a GPS system, radar, cameras, and seven Pentium M computer processors to traverse the 132 mile course from Barstow, California to Primm, Nevada. The Challenge requires a vehicle to travel this rough terrain unaided by humans in less than ten hours. To put this achievement in perspective one needs to know that in 2004 the most successful competitor only made it through 7.5 miles of the course. (stanfordracing.org)
2) Industrial/Labor
The first industrial robot company, Unimation, was founded by Joseph Englberger and George C. Devol in 1962. They created, produced, and licensed the Unimate arm that revolutionized both the American and Japanese manufacturing process. (Asimov, p17)
In 1978 General Motors, attempted to catch up with Japanese manufacturers who already utilized robotic arms. GM developed and installed the PUMA manufacturing system. Englberger realizing the press attached the name only to the robotic arm, worked with GM to secure the rights to the PUMA name. (Asimov p40-44) The PUMA was not the first, but its success led other manufacturers to adopt robotic arms in their manufacturing processes. (Perkowitz p73) Today most of the robots in the world are industrial arms programmed to move material, parts, tools, or work very specialized, repetitive jobs. Former President John F. Kennedy predicted in the 60’s that automation of industry would replace man in the factories. (Logsdon p31)
“Electro” and his dog “Sparko” were Westinghouse’s promotional robots for the 1940 World’s Fair. Using gears, chain drives, pulleys, and simple motors covered in heavy sheet metal, these lever operated machines were capable of sitting, talking, walking, dancing, and Electro could even smoke a pipe. (Asimov p23)
WABOT I was created by Ichiro Kato in 1973. It was the first full-scale anthropomorphic (having human characteristics) robot in the world. Its programming and controls allowed it to move its limbs, follow movement, and have limited conversations. WABOT II is even able to read and play music. (pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca)
Honda’s humanoid robot, ASIMO, is also a promotional robot. It is capable of assisting in the lifting of heavy objects, walking up stairs, kicking a soccer ball, and even dancing with a remote control from either a work station or a hand held operating device. The newest version revealed on December 2005, is capable of automated receptionist and waiter-type tasks in a real-world environment such as: pushing a cart, greeting passing people in the hallway, and accepting or giving a tray of coffee. Currently ASIMO only has 40 minutes worth of battery time making practical use of its functions unrealistic but Honda continues to improve their pet project. (world.honda.com/ASIMO)
3) Military and Law Enforcement
The “Mini Andros” was created to search out possible bomb threats and to find leaks in a nuclear reactor. Its special axles and wheels allow it to climb stairs, rise up to table-top height and lower itself down to search under beds or desks. It also has camera and arm attachments that can be used remotely by a bomb squad technician to reveal or disarm a threat. (pbs.org)
A variation of the Andros called the M2 (Mighty Mouse) was used on a White Sands Missile Range testing ground in New Mexico. The area is used to test the simulated effects of nuclear weapons on electronics and other military hardware. In this instance, a shielding unit for a radioactive material broke and all the safety precautions failed to fix the problem. Because this radioactive material is deadly to humans, the M2 robot was used to close the shielding unit. The M2 saved the day, but sacrificed itself in the process because the radiation damage was too severe. (Popular Mechanics)
“Robug III” can carry 221 pounds with its solid eight legged construction. It was built to search for nuclear reactor leaks and be able to navigate around obstacles that would be present should an explosion occur. (pbs.org)
Using two screw-like wheels, STAR is able to lightly traverse the grounds where land mines might be present. Using its onboard radar equipment, it can locate and mark the potential hazards. (pbs.org)
The Predator, an Unmanned Aerial Reconnaissance Vehicle (UAV- a remote-controlled mini-airplane), is operated by a highly trained technician, often an actual pilot. The Predator is able to fly over dangerous air zones and gain information necessary to continue successful military operations, without risking the lives of human pilots.
The Army is investigating robotic systems to lighten soldiers carry loads down to 40 pounds as well as perform other combat missions as part of the Army’s Objective Force Warrior Project. (natick.army.mil)
4) Entertainment
In 1921, the Russian playwright Karl Capek, with the help of his brother Josef, first used the term robot for his play Rossums Universal Robots or R.U.R. Robot came from the Slovak expression for worker or servant. The story is about a robot factory were the worker robots are treated like slaves. Realizing that they’re being exploited, they rise up and rebel against their human oppressors and kill them. This has become a common theme in science fiction stories.
1927’s Metropolis featured a female fake Maria that seduced and corrupted those around her for her own gain. Her design is specifically what George Lucas told Ralph McQuarrie to use as inspiration for C-3PO in Star Wars.
Osamu Tezuka, the “God of Manga”, created the Japanese robot character Astro Boy as a comic strip in 1952. He was created as a replacement for a scientist’s son but soon became a super hero. The strip went on to become a popular cartoon and Astro Boy is as recognizable as Mickey Mouse in Japan. (Asimov pC9)
In 1967, movie audiences were introduced to Arthur C. Clarke (author) and Stanley Kubrick’s (director) 2001: A Space Odyssey, and more importantly for our discussion, to HAL 9000. HAL is built into the ship Discovery and murders all but one of the crew in an attempt to preserve itself. This was the first time people had seen a robot (or in the case of HAL a light and a voice) interact with humans on an equal or even superior basis.
George Lucas’ space opera Star Wars opened in 1977 to the delight of ravenous fans. Two of the first characters we are introduced to are R2-D2 or Artoo, the astromech droid, and his companion C-3PO or Threepio, human-cyborg relations, protocol, and interpreter droid. Their adventures are followed throughout the original trilogy (A New Hope, Empire Strikes Back, and Return of the Jedi) and the “prequels” (The Phantom Menace, Attack of the Clones, and Revenge of the Sith). The Star Wars universe is filled with droids of varying size and purposes from small mechanics to large medical or probe robots that all interact with humans seamlessly. Lucas also owns the legal rights to the term “droids”, a shortened version of the word “android”.
“Joshua” was a program created for the Department of Defense’s WPOR computer in the movie WarGames, 1983. Like 1970’s Colossus from The Forbin Project, it was used to aid the US in event of a nuclear attack. Because of a hacker played by Mathew Broderick, Joshua begins to play a real game of nuclear strike against the Russians. However when the robot program is convinced to play tic tac toe instead, Joshua learns the futility of a game where no one can win. (imdb.com)
One of the greatest writers of robots in science fiction was Isaac Asimov. One of his most well known works is I, Robot which is a collection of short stories written between 1939-1950. This work was later used to create the I, Robot movie starring Will Smith. Asimov created robots whose lives interacted with humans in a way that had never been seen before. They were very real in feelings and thoughts and more than just machines. Asimov is also credited as being the first person to use the word “robotics”. He is also the creator of the 3 Laws of Robotics (first published in Asimov’s story “Runaround”, March 1942 issue of Astounding magazine).
I. A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
II. A robot must obey the orders given to it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
III. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.
The Zeroth Law was first published in Asmiov’s novel Robots and Empire in 1985.
A robot may not injure humanity, or, through inaction, allow humanity to come to harm.
“Robby the Robot” in 1956’s Forbidden Planet was big and clunky but loveable because of its interactions with humans. It was the inspiration for the robot from the tv series Lost in Space. Its importance here, though, is because it self-destructed while attempting to obey the 3 laws. When it tried to comply with an order given to it to kill someone, its processing unit got fried because of the overriding obligation to not harm a human. (imdb.com)
Rosie the Robot from Hanna & Barrera’s The Jetsons was a rolling multifunctional talking maid who helped keep the Jetson family on pace in their daily lives. She cooked, cleaned, helped raise the kids, and even took the dog for walks. She represents the most common fantasy concept when people think about the future of robot helpers.
“Johnny 5”, of Short Circuit fame, gave us a new take on Frankenstein and Pinocchio in that he wanted to be accepted as having real intelligence while also accepting that he was in fact a robot. This quality is also prevalent in Star Trek: The Next Generation’s Data, an android trying to understand and assimilate human traits and quirks.
James Cameron’s Terminator trilogy and Andy and Larry Wachowski’s Matrix trilogy both deal with the revolt of military machines rising up against man and the chaos of a post nuclear war world where resisting humans fight for humanity. The Matrix actually flips things and has man serving as slave power sources. When people think of R.U.R.’s theme these two movies are usually the ones that spring to mind.
What do Disney’s Pirates of the Caribbean and Star Tours attractions, King Kong, Jurassic Park, and Chuck-E-Cheese’s pizza restaurants all have in common? They all use animatronic special effects. Whether it is King Kong’s actress grabbing hands, a breathing dinosaur, Pirates and robots going about their actions, or a large mouse jamming up on stage, each is a computer programmed robot underneath. In fact, Disney World’s Star Tours animatronic robots mostly come from the parks’ other attractions where they can no longer be used for one reason or another. Underneath the fake skin, scales, and whatnot are wires, sensors, and motors giving the robot “life”.
5) Medical
Surgeons are currently using computer overlay screens to work on areas that would otherwise be very dangerous. The use of robots in the operating room in this instance is resulting in cleaner, faster, and more successful surgeries. There is also work being done for remote presence robots to allow a specialist surgeon in one state to operate on a patient in a different state. This hasn’t been perfected, but it will be as soon as computer technology catches up with real time actions. (Brooks p223-224)
Cornell engineer Andy Ruin builds walking robots to better understand the way humans move so he can assist humans when their legs start to fail. Just ten years ago, walking robots were a rare sight. Today it isn’t surprising and they are built far stronger and more agile than their predecessors. He’s not alone in this research – many others are pursuing similar goals. (Popular Science)
Hugh Herr, a leg amputee and MIT researcher, is working on using cultured mammal muscles instead of motors to power robotic leg frames. Others have tried synthetic rubbers to simulate human muscles but none have worked like they should so far. (Brooks p215-216) Arm amputees have also tried bionic limbs. Campell Aird was the first person to be fitted with the Edinburg Modular Arm System (EMAS). (pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca) The current problem with bionic arms is allowing for a difference in the sensitivity of touches so a person could pick up a ten pound weight or an egg. This will require some repair or synthesis of the connecting nerves which is not yet possible. Once it is, cybernetic implants such as the Bionic Woman’s will be possible.
According to Brooks that is why robots will never overtake human kind “Because there won’t be any of us (people) for them (pure robots) to take over from.” Humans will adapt themselves to the advancing technologies with bionics becoming cyborgs themselves. “Fairly soon we may have to start banning kids with neural Internet connection implants from having them switched on while taking the SATs.” (Brooks ix, x)
Then there is what is called “nanotechnology”. Specifically, we are talking about the non-biological microscopic molecular machines. There are a lot of ideas and beliefs about their possible future uses, like self replication or rebuilding human cells in micro surgeries. For now though, they are very basic and only capable of the simplest tasks that biological creatures can do naturally.
6) Toys
In 1955 Japanese toy robot designs moved away from the friction and windup-based movements and started using batteries to power motion, lights and sound. “Robby the Robot” from Forbidden Planet, spawned over a hundred unlicensed toy robot variations from various toy companies. (robotnut.com) Robot toys built since then have what is called “bump-and–go” technology. If their forward progress is halted they reverse and head in a different direction, usually a ninety-degree turn. Robot toys are interesting because they develop one technological advancement at a time, just enough to be showcased in a thirty second commercial and on the toy packaging. However, they also are manufactured with the cheapest parts available. For instance, programming computer chips that are normally soldered on to a circuit board in any other product are directly attached in a toy. (Brooks)
Capsela has long been a cornerstone for educational toys. Essentially they are plastic capsules containing different components from motors to gears to sensors. Like the Erector sets before, it allowed kids to build their own simple robots. Unlike the Erector sets though, Capsela allowed kids to easily put something workable together without needing to have a serious understanding of electric currents or mechanical know how.
“Hero Jr.” was created by Heathkit Corp. as the first mass produced hobby robot kit. Using several different program cartridges it could play games, sing songs, and even had an alarm clock. It also had a built-in keypad to allow for limited programming by a user. (Asimov)
The “Omnibot 2000” was a remote-controlled robot with sensors that allowed it to detect movement or pick up a ball. It could also follow programs that were written on tape cartridges. It was created by the Japanese toy manufacturer Tomy. (pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca ) Robots that followed this model were soon able to do everything from retrieving a can of soda to shooting Styrofoam darts to being able to follow specific voice commands.
Tiger Electronics released the Furby to much fanfare from the Holiday season shoppers in 1998. The Furby contained a program that allowed for it to “learn” words the more it was played with and its sensors activated by opening more and more of its programmed abilities over time. There was such a great concern that the Pentagon forbid employees from bringing Furbies into classified areas for fear it would repeat any sensitive information it overheard. It contained facial and movement motors that gave it a lifelike appearance. The Furby’s infrared sensors could also detect another Furby nearby and the two would appear to communicate with each other.
Robosapien version 2 is an update from the previous 2004 model. The original had 67 pre-programmed functions including walking, picking up a ball and throwing it, dancing, kung-fu, farting, belching, and even rapping. The newer model is able to do all of these actions better and more smoothly while adding capabilities like bowling to its repertoire of over a hundred functions. (Popular Mechanics, Robosapien packaging)
Lego Mindstorms came about as the building block toy company Lego moved into the hobby robot arena in the eighties. They made real advancements when Dr. Seymour Papert of MIT became the head of their robot division. In fact, the name Mindstorm comes from Papert’s previous work in robotics. Using the basic Lego building blocks, combined with the most sophisticated computer technology and sensors in toys, the Mindstorm brand has become Lego’s top seller and is one of the most renowned hobby toys in the world. They are constantly updating their product to allow for a variety of capabilities and ease for new users to pick up. This may very well inspire a new generation of computer programmers and robot engineers.
The AIBO dog robot, while discontinued by Sony, was a very hot seller when it hit the market in 1999, despite its $1,500 price tag. AIBO could walk, bark, and play fetch using camera eyes, and sensors and some innovative motorized articulation. What made the AIBO so popular was that like the Furby its programming allowed greater features as the dog interacted with it’s owner. Sony also provided upgrades via memory sticks and encouraged hobbyists to augment their AIBO with additional programming. This was the closest the industry has ever come to producing a robotic companion that was just as interesting as a live animal.
7) Household Help
Because Rosie the robot is still a far-off dream of inventers, what has entered the market place and households of the world are robots designed to carry out specific tasks. (Popular Science) Some of the first robot helpers to enter the market were robotic lawn mowers. These varied in price from a few hundred dollars to several thousands of dollars. Ultimately all of them lacked the ability to mow what a human could do in a matter of minutes with any sense of consistency. Ones that are able to find a recharging station now are much better than the ones that came before, but they still are not able to mow a lawn as efficiently as a human. (Brooks)
Professor Brooks’ company, iRobot, (after Asimov’s book) has sold the most popular robot in history. The “Roomba” vacuum cleaning robot, using the same insect search and bump and go technology, is able to clean floors by randomly covering the floor area. It is programmed to follow walls and if it should meet an obstacle to simply go in a different direction. The Roomba has sold more units than any other robot ever made. (Brooks) With the Roomba’s success, iRobot now also makes the “Scooba” floor mopping robot and the “Dirt Dog” workshop/garage heavy-duty vacuum. (irobot.com)
There are even robots using those same technical principles that can clean your pool. The “Aquabot” line of pool cleaners are remote-controlled or autonomous pool cleaners that can be dropped in and left to work on their own. (aquabotsuperstore.com)
The Future
The problem when discussing the future of anything is that no one knows what the future holds. Even the experts in the field cannot agree on what we can expect with any degree of certainty, each making their best “guesstimation.” What we have to keep in mind when talking about the future direction of robotics, is that we have to balance our expectations versus real-life limitations. Too many people try too hard to fit the Science Fiction view of robotics into reality. That may very well be because of our mortality and a desire to live beyond that, but that expectation is not realistic.
There are many obstacles that the fields of robotics and artificial intelligence must overcome before we reach the point where there are mass produced robot helpers in every home. Currently, there is not enough cognitive recognition of objects for a robot to differentiate between all objects or group similar objects. For instance, as humans we can identify a wooden, straight-backed, all 90-degree angled, four legged object with a seat as a chair. A cushioned chair would also be recognizable. A robot requires programming to realize those two items can be classified similarly, something a kindergarten student could do without much thought. One of the tests proposed by Tom Logsdon is present a robot with a vanity license plate like CU L8R to see if it could understand the message. Only a human would be able to understand the “C” is sometimes pronounced as “see”, the same with “U”, and that “L8R” can also be read as “later”. Right now robots simply do not have that kind of ability to see and recognize.
Because of this lack of seeing and understanding, we are fairly far-off from having Rosie the robot maid prepare and serve us dinner. While robotic advances are being made every day we are still far from the point where robots can easily navigate a house or a kitchen’s cupboards without human aid. We are also far away from the point where we have to concern ourselves with a “Terminator” type situation where robots replicate themselves and rise up against the human creators. The factories where robots are made still require humans to operate the facilities in some fashion. They are not 100% completely automated. Even then we still control the power sources.
All of the experts agree we are on the cusp of making these breakthroughs. Currently, we are missing that one special ingredient that will allow us to move past the obstacles that are preventing us from going further. Whether it is only a matter of a person seeing what no one else does, inventing something that will forever change technology, or discovering something entirely new, the technology is not yet there to catch up with the science in our science fiction. That said, the experts all agree this ingredient will be revealed to us within the next ten to twenty years. At the speed computer technology has advanced over the past ten years, it would certainly be possible to have a robot learn the differences of items it would encounter on a daily basis and adapt to its surrounding environment. Until then, robots that are programmed to walk and talk like Kismet and ASIMO, do repetitive tasks like manufacturing arms, go where humans cannot like the Mars rover or the M2, entertain us like Robosapien, assist like the Roomba, and teach the next generation like Lego Mindstorms will have to suffice.
Bibliography
1) Books
Asimov, Isaac and Karen Frenkel. Robots, Machines in Man’s Image. New York NY: Harmony Books,1985.
Brooks, Rodney A. Flesh and Machines, How Robots Will Change Us. New York NY: Random House, 2002.
Cook, David. Robot Building for Beginners. New York NY: Apress, 2002.
Ferrari, Mario, Giulio Ferrari, and Ralph Hempel. Building Robots with Lego Mindstorms. USA: Syngress Publications, 2002.
Logsdon, Tom. The Robot Revolution. New York NY: Simon & Schuster, Inc., 1984.
Perkowitz, Sidney. Digital People: From Bionic Humans to Androids. Washington DC : Joseph Henry Press, 2004.
2) Articles
Fermor, John, “Timing the Sun in Egypt and Mesopotamia.” Vistas in Astronomy, 41 1997.
Kurzwell, Ray. “Robots R Us.” Popular Science September 2006.
Mone, Gregory. “5 Paths to the Walking, Talking, Pie Baking Humanoid Robot.” Popular Science September 2006.
Sofge, Erik. “Nerves fo Steel.” Popular Mechanics April 2006.
3) Websites
athena.cornell.edu/kids/
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/robots
pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/~jaeger/visualMedia/robotHistory.html
robonaut.jsc.nasa.gov/
aquabotsuperstore.com
discover.com
faculty.ucr.edu/~currie/roboadam.htm
irobot.com/sp.cfm?pageid=95
mindstorms.com
natick.army.mil/about/pao/pubs/warrior/02/septoct/untangle.htm
pbs.org/wgbh/nova/robots/hazard
research.ibm.com/deepblue/
robothalloffame.org
robotnut.com/history/
stanfordracing.org
ired.com/wired/archive/12.12/cameron.html
orld.honda.com/ASIMO/
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